Electrical Engineering Handbook (eBook)

Cover 1
Frontmatter 2
Half Title Page 2
Title Page 4
Copyright 5
Contents 6
Contributors 10
Preface 16
Editor-in-Chief 18
I: CIRCUIT THEORY 20
1. Linear Circuit Analysis 22
1.1 Definitions and Terminology 22
1.2 Circuit Laws 25
1.3 Circuit Analysis 25
1.4 Equivalent Circuits 28
1.5 Network Theorems 31
1.6 Time Domain Analysis 32
1.7 Laplace Transform 35
1.8 State Variable Analysis 39
1.9 Alternating Current Steady State Analysis 41
1.10 Alternating Current Steady State Power 45
2. Circuit Analysis: A Graph-Theoretic Foundation 50
2.1 Introduction 50
2.2 Basic Concepts and Results 50
2.3 Graphs and Electrical Networks 55
2.4 Loop and Cutset Systems of Equations 57
2.5 Summary 60
References 60
3. Computer-Aided Design 62
3.1 Introduction 62
3.2 Modified Nodal Analysis 62
3.3 Formulation of MNA Equations of Nonlinear Circuits 65
3.4 A Direct Current Solution of Nonlinear Circuits 66
3.5 Transient Analysis of Nonlinear Circuits 68
References 70
4. Synthesis of Networks 72
4.1 Introduction 72
4.2 Elementary Networks 73
4.3 Network Functions 75
4.4 Frequency Domain Responses 76
4.5 Normalization and Scaling 80
4.6 Approximations for Low-Pass Filters 80
4.7 Transformations of Inductor Capacitor Low-Pass Filters 82
4.8 Realizability of Functions 84
4.9 Synthesis of LC One-Ports 88
4.10 Synthesis of LC Two-Port Networks 89
4.11 All-Pass Networks 91
4.12 Summary 93
References 93
5. Nonlinear Circuits 94
5.1 Introduction 94
5.2 Models of Physical Circuit Elements 95
5.3 Voltages and Currents in Nonlinear Circuits 98
5.4 Open Problems 100
References 100
II: ELECTRONICS 102
1. Investigation of Power Management Issues for Future Generation Microprocessors 104
1.1 Introduction 104
1.2 Limitations of Today’s Technologies 106
1.3 Advanced VRM Topologies 109
1.4 Future VRMs 114
1.5 Conclusions 118
References 118
2. Noise in Analog and Digital Systems 120
2.1 Introduction 120
2.2 Analog (Small-Signal) Noise 120
2.3 Digital (Large-Signal) Noise 124
Bibliography 127
3. Field Effect Transistors 128
3.1 Introduction 128
3.2 Metal-Oxide-Silicon Capacitor 128
3.3 Metal-Oxide-Silicon Field Effect Transistor 132
3.4 Junction Field Effect Transistor 141
3.5 Metal-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor 142
3.6 Modulation-Doped Field Effect Transistor 143
References 145
4. Active Filters 146
4.1 Introduction 146
4.2 Realization Methods 147
References 157
5. Junction Diodes and Bipolar Junction Transistors 158
5.1 Junction Diodes 158
5.2 Bipolar Junction Transistor 161
References 170
6. Semiconductors 172
6.1 History of Semiconductors 172
6.2 Dielectrics, Semiconductors, and Metals 172
6.3 Electron and Hole Velocities and Mobilities 176
6.4 Important Semiconductor Materials 181
References 181
7. Power Semiconductor Devices 182
7.1 Introduction 182
7.2 Breakdown Voltage 182
7.3 P-i-N Diode 183
7.4 Schottky Diode 184
7.5 Power Bipolar Transistor 185
7.6 Thyristor 186
7.7 Gate Turn-Off Thyristor 188
7.8 Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor 188
7.9 Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor 191
7.10 Other MOS-Gate Devices 193
7.11 Smart Power Technologies 194
7.12 Other Material Technologies 194
Bibliography 195
III: VLSI SYSTEMS 196
1. Logarithmic and Residue Number Systems for VLSI Arithmetic 198
1.1 Introduction 198
1.2 LNS Basics 198
1.3 The Residue Number System 204
References 209
2. Custom Memory Organization and Data Transfer: Architectural Issues and Exploration Methods 210
2.1 Introduction 210
2.2 Custom Memory Components 211
2.3 Off-Chip and Global Hierarchical Memory Organization 214
2.4 Code Rewriting Techniques to Improve Data Reuse and Access Locality 217
2.5 How to Meet Real-Time Bandwidth Constraints 220
2.6 Custom Memory Organization Design 225
2.7 Data Layout Reorganization for Reduced Memory Size 229
References 233
3. The Role of Hardware Description Languages in the Design Process of Multinature Systems 236
3.1 Introduction 236
3.2 Design Process and Levels of Abstraction 237
3.3 Fundamentals of VHDL–AMS 238
3.4 Systems Modeling: A Multinature Example 243
3.5 Conclusion and Further Readings 249
References 249
4. Clock Skew Scheduling for Improved Reliability 250
4.1 Introduction 250
4.2 Background 251
4.3 Clock Scheduling for Improved Reliability 257
4.4 Derivation of the QP Algorithm 261
4.5 Practical Considerations 268
4.6 Experimental Results 275
References 280
5. Trends in Low-Power VLSI Design 282
5.1 Introduction 282
5.2 Importance of Low-Power CMOS Design 282
5.3 Sources of Power Consumption in CMOS 285
5.4 Power Consumption Considerations 289
5.5 Energy Versus Power 290
5.6 Optimization Metrics 291
5.7 Techniques for Power Reduction 291
Acknowledgments 298
References 298
6. Production and Utilization of Micro Electro Mechanical Systems 300
6.1 Introduction 300
6.2 Overview of MEMS 300
6.3 From Design to Reliable MEMS Devices 302
6.4 Diversity of MEMS Applications 308
6.5 Summary 314
Appendix: Books on MEMS 315
References 316
7. Noise Analysis and Design in Deep Submicron Technology 318
7.1 Introduction 318
7.2 Noise Sources 320
7.3 Noise Reduction Techniques 321
7.4 Noise Analysis Algorithms 326
Acknowledgments 328
References 328
8. Interconnect Noise Analysis and Optimization in Deep Submicron Technology 330
8.1 Introduction 330
8.2 Interconnect Noise Models 332
8.3 Noise Minimization Techniques 333
8.4 Interconnect Noise in Early Design Stages 335
8.5 Case Study Pentium 4 336
Acknowledgments 337
References 337
IV: DIGITAL SYSTEMS AND COMPUTER ENGINEERING 340
1. Computer Architecture 342
1.1 Microprogramming 342
1.2 Memory Hierarchy in Computer Systems 343
1.3 Bus and Interface 348
1.4 Input/Output 352
2. Multiprocessors 354
2.1 Introduction 354
2.2 Architecture of Multiprocessor Systems 355
2.3 Cache Coherence 356
2.4 Software Development and Tools 358
2.5 Recent Advances 360
2.6 Summary 360
References 360
3. Configurable Computing 362
3.1 Introduction 362
3.2 Approach 363
3.3 Overview 364
3.4 Current and Future Trends 369
3.5 Concluding Remarks 370
Acknowledgments 371
References 371
4. Operating Systems 374
4.1 Introduction 374
4.2 Operating System Concepts 375
4.3 Operating Systems History 377
4.4 A Model Operating System 379
4.5 Case 1: UNIX 380
4.6 Case 2: MS-DOS 383
References 385
5. Expert Systems 386
5.1 Overview 386
5.2 Knowledge Representation 389
5.3 Reasoning 391
5.4 Knowledge Acquisition 394
5.5 Explanation 395
References 396
6. Multimedia Systems: Content-Based Indexing and Retrieval 398
6.1 Introduction 398
6.2 Multimedia Storage and Encoding 399
6.3 Multimedia Indexing and Retrieval 405
6.4 Conclusions 417
References 418
7. Multimedia Networks and Communication 420
7.1 Preface 420
7.2 Introduction to Multimedia 421
7.3 Best-Effort Internet Support for Distributed Multimedia Traffic Requirements 427
7.4 Enhancing the TCP/IP Protocol Stack to Support Functional Requirements of Distributed Multimedia Applications 435
7.5 Quality of Service Architecture for Third-Generation Cellular Systems 442
References 443
8. Fault Tolerance in Computer Systems—From Circuits to Algorithms 446
8.1 Introduction 446
8.2 Fault Detection and Tolerance for Arithmetic Circuits 450
8.3 Fault Tolerance in Field-Programmable Gate Arrays 455
8.4 Control Flow Checking With a Watchdog Processor 460
8.5 Microrollback—A Fault-Tolerance Mechanism for Processor Systems 465
8.6 Algorithm-Based Fault Tolerance 467
8.7 Conclusions 473
References 473
9. High-Level Petri Nets—Extensions, Analysis, and Applications 478
9.1 Introduction 478
9.2 High-Level Petri Nets 478
9.3 Temporal Predicate Transition Nets 480
9.4 PZ Nets 483
9.5 Hierarchical Predicate Transition Nets 486
9.6 Fuzzy-Timing High-Level Petri Nets 491
Acknowledgements 492
References 492
V: ELECTROMAGNETICS 496
1. Magnetostatics 498
1.1 Introduction 498
1.2 Direct Current 498
1.3 Governing Equations of Magnetostatics 501
1.4 Magnetic Force and Torque 504
1.5 Magnetic Materials 506
1.6 Inductance 510
1.7 Stored Energy 513
1.8 Magnetic Circuits 514
References 516
2. Electrostatics 518
2.1 Introduction 518
2.2 Sources and Fields 519
2.3 Boundary Conditions and Laplace’s Equation 525
2.4 Capacitance 529
References 531
3. Plane Wave Propagation and Reflection 532
3.1 Introduction 532
3.2 Basic Properties of a Plane Wave 532
3.3 Propagation of a Homogeneous Plane Wave 535
3.4 Plane Wave Reflection and Transmission 538
3.5 Example: Reflection of an RHCP Wave 541
References 543
4. Transmission Lines 544
4.1 Introduction 544
4.2 Equivalent Circuit 547
4.3 Alternating Current Analysis 548
4.4 Smith Chart 553
4.5 Summary 555
Appendix A: References 556
5. Guided Waves 558
5.1 Definition of Guiding Structure or Waveguide 558
5.2 Classification and Definitions 559
5.3 Rectangular Waveguide 559
5.4 Partially Filled Metallic Rectangular Waveguide 563
5.5 Circular Metal Waveguide 563
5.6 Microstrip Line 565
5.7 Slot Line 567
5.8 Coplanar Waveguide 568
5.9 Dielectric Circular Waveguide and Optical Fiber 568
5.10 Line-Type Waveguide 569
References 570
6. Antennas and Radiation 572
I. Antenna Fundamentals 572
6.1 Introduction 572
6.2 Antenna as a Transmitter 573
6.3 Antenna as a Receiver 580
6.4 Transmit–Receive Communication Link 583
6.5 Antenna as a Scatterer 586
References 588
II. Antenna Elements and Arrays 588
6.6 Introduction 588
6.7 Antenna Elements 588
6.8 Antenna Array 597
References 601
7. Microwave Passive Components 604
7.1 General Concepts and Basic Definitions 604
7.2 Basic Passive Elements and Circuits 606
7.3 Impedance Transformers and Matching Networks 610
7.4 Hybrids, Couplers, and Power Dividers/Combiners 614
7.5 Resonators and Cavities 620
7.6 Filter Circuits 625
7.7 Ferrite Components 632
7.8 Other Passive Components 635
References 636
8. Computational Electromagnetics: The Method of Moments 638
8.1 Introduction 638
8.2 Basic Principle 639
8.3 Integral Equations 640
8.4 Basis Functions 643
8.5 Testing Functions 645
8.6 Solution of Matrix Equations 645
References 646
9. Computational Electromagnetics: The Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method 648
9.1 Introduction 648
9.2 Maxwell’s Equations 652
9.3 The Yee Algorithm 653
9.4 Numerical Dispersion 657
9.5 Numerical Stability 668
9.6 Perfectly Matched Layer Absorbing Boundary Conditions 674
9.7 Examples of FDTD Modeling Applications 682
9.8 Summary and Conclusions 688
Bibliography 688
10. Radar and Inverse Scattering 690
10.1 Introduction 690
10.2 Parameters of a Pulsed Radar 691
10.3 Radar Equation 691
10.4 Radar Cross Section 691
10.5 Radar Transmitters 693
10.6 Radar Receivers and Displays 693
10.7 Radar Antennas 695
10.8 Clutter 696
10.9 Radar Detection 697
10.10 Continuous Wave Radars 698
10.11 Moving Target Indicator and Pulse Doppler Radars 699
10.12 Tracking Radar 701
10.13 High-Resolution Radar 702
10.14 High Cross-Range Resolution Radar 703
10.15 Inverse Scattering 705
References 709
11. Microwave Active Circuits and Integrated Antennas 710
11.1 Introduction 710
11.2 Device Technology and Concepts 711
11.3 Active Microwave Circuits 715
11.4 Planar Antenna Technology 719
11.5 Active Integrated Antennas 724
References 724
VI: ELECTRIC POWER SYSTEMS 726
1. Three-Phase Alternating Current Systems 728
1.1 Introduction 728
1.2 Two-Wire and Three-Wire Systems: Current 728
1.3 Voltages 729
2. Electric Power System Components 732
2.1 Introduction 732
2.2 Generators and Transformers 732
3. Power Transformers 734
3.1 Introduction 734
3.2 Transformers: Description and Use 734
3.3 Transformers: Theory and Principle 734
3.4 Cooling Methods 736
3.5 Transformer Applications 736
3.6 Cores and Windings 737
3.7 Transformer Performance 738
3.8 Acceptance Tests 739
References 739
4. Introduction to Electric Machines 740
4.1 Introduction 740
4.2 Direct Current Machines 744
4.3 Three-Phase Induction Motor 747
4.4 Synchronous Machines 751
4.5 Single-Phase Induction Machines 754
5. High-Voltage Transmission 756
5.1 Introduction 756
5.2 Design Considerations for Overhead Lines 757
5.3 Stresses Encountered in Service 759
5.4 Insulator Performance 760
5.5 Established Methods Employed for Installations In-Service 763
5.6 Newer Developments to Improve Performance of Installations In-Service 764
5.7 Methods for Improving Contamination Performance of New Installations 765
5.8 Underground Transmission Cables 766
References 767
6. Power Distribution 768
6.1 Distribution System 768
6.2 Quality of Service and Voltage Standards 774
References 778
7. Power System Analysis 780
7.1 Introduction 780
7.2 Steady-State Analysis 780
7.3 Dynamic Analysis 791
7.4 Conclusion 797
References 797
8. Power System Operation and Control 798
8.1 Introduction 798
8.2 Generation Dispatch 798
8.3 Frequency Control 801
8.4 Conclusion: Contemporary Issues 804
9. Fundamentals of Power System Protection 806
9.1 Fundamentals of Power System Protection 806
9.2 Relaying Systems, Principles, and Criteria of Operation 810
9.3 Protection of Transmission Lines 815
9.4 Protection of Power Transformers 818
9.5 Protection of Synchronous Generators 820
9.6 Bus Protection 821
9.7 Protection of Induction Motors 822
References 822
10. Electric Power Quality 824
10.1 Definition 824
10.2 Types of Disturbances 824
10.3 Measurement of Electric Power Quality 824
10.4 Instrumentation Considerations 827
10.5 Analysis Techniques 828
10.6 Nomenclature 828
References 829
VII: SIGNAL PROCESSING 830
1. Signals and Systems 832
1.1 Introduction 832
1.2 Signals 833
1.3 Systems 838
1.4 Analysis in Frequency Domain 843
1.5 The z-Transform and Laplace Transform 847
1.6 Sampling and Quantization 850
1.7 Discrete Fourier Transform 854
1.8 Summary 855
References 856
2. Digital Filters 858
2.1 Introduction 858
2.2 Digital Signal Processing Systems 859
2.3 Sampling of Analog Signals 859
2.4 Digital Filters and Linear Systems 860
2.5 Finite Impulse Response (FIR) Filters 863
2.6 Infinite Impulse Response Filters 864
2.7 Digital Filter Realizations 865
2.8 FIR Filter Approximation Methods 867
2.9 FIR Filter Design by Optimization 868
2.10 IIR Filter Approximations 873
2.11 Quantization in Digital Filters 875
2.12 Real-Time Implementation of Digital Filters 878
2.13 Conclusion 879
References 879
3. Methods, Models, and Algorithms for Modern Speech Processing 880
3.1 Introduction 880
3.2 Modeling Speech Production 881
3.3 Fundamental Methods and Algorithms Used in Speech Processing 891
3.4 Specialized Speech Processing Methods and Algorithms 899
3.5 Summary and Conclusions 907
References 908
4. Digital Image Processing 910
4.1 Introduction 910
4.2 Image Sampling 911
4.3 Image Quantization 914
4.4 Image Enhancement 916
4.5 Image Restoration 917
4.6 Image Coding 920
4.7 Image Analysis 927
4.8 Summary 928
References 929
5. Multimedia Systems and Signal Processing 930
5.1 Introduction 930
5.2 MPEG-7 UMA 931
5.3 MPEG-21 Digital Item Adaptation 933
5.4 Transcoding Optimization 935
5.5 Multimedia Content Selection 936
5.6 Summary 938
References 938
6. Statistical Signal Processing 940
6.1 Introduction 940
6.2 Bayesian Estimation 940
6.3 Linear Estimation 942
6.4 Fisher Statistics 943
6.5 Signal Detection 946
6.6 Suggested Readings 949
References 950
7. VLSI Signal Processing 952
7.1 Introduction 952
7.2 Algorithm to Hardware Synthesis 954
7.3 Hardware Implementation 961
7.4 Conclusion 965
References 965
VIII: DIGITAL COMMUNICATION AND COMMUNICATION NETWORKS 968
1. Signal Types, Properties, and Processes 970
1.1 Signal Types 970
1.2 Energy and Power of a Signal 970
1.3 Random Processes 971
1.4 Transmission of a Random Signal Through a Linear Time-Invariant Filter 972
1.5 Power Spectral Density 973
1.6 Relation Between the psd of Input Versus the psd of Output 974
2. Digital Communication System Concepts 976
2.1 Digital Communication System 976
2.2 Messages, Characters, and Symbols 976
2.3 Sampling Process 976
2.4 Aliasing 978
2.5 Quantization 979
2.6 Pulse Amplitude Modulation 979
2.7 Sources of Corruption 980
2.8 Voice Communication 982
2.9 Encoding 983
3. Transmission of Digital Signals 984
3.1 Transmission of Digital Data 984
3.2 Detection of Binary Signals in Gaussian Noise 984
3.3 Error Probability 985
3.4 The Matched Filter 986
3.5 Error Probability Performance of Binary Signaling 987
3.6 Equalizer 987
4. Modulation and Demodulation Technologies 990
4.1 Modulation and Demodulation 990
4.2 Introduction to Modulation 990
4.3 Phase Shift Keying 992
4.4 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying 993
4.5 The p/4 Differential Phase Shift Keying 994
4.6 Minimum Shift Keying 996
4.7 Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying 996
4.8 Synchronization 998
4.9 Equalization 999
4.10 Summary of Modulation and Demodulation Processes 1000
5. Data Communication Concepts 1002
5.1 Introduction to Data Networking 1002
6. Communication Network Architecture 1008
6.1 Computer Network Architecture 1008
6.2 Local Networking Technologies 1010
6.3 Local Network Internetworking Using Bridges or Routers 1020
6.4 Conclusion 1022
Glossary 1022
References 1022
7. Wireless Network Access Technologies 1024
7.1 Access Technologies 1024
7.2 Comparisons of FDMA, TDMA, and CDMA 1028
8. Convergence of Networking Technologies 1030
8.1 Convergence 1030
8.2 Optical Networking 1033
IX: CONTROLS AND SYSTEMS 1036
1. Algebraic Topics in Control 1038
1.1 Introduction 1038
1.2 Vector Spaces Over Fields and Modules Over Rings 1039
1.3 Matrices and Matrix Algebra 1039
1.4 Square Matrix Functions: Determinants and Inverses 1041
1.5 The Algebra of Polynomials 1043
1.6 Characteristic and Singular Values 1043
1.7 Nonassociative Algebras 1045
1.8 Biosystems Applications 1045
References 1045
2. Stability 1046
2.1 Introduction 1046
2.2 Stability Concepts 1046
2.3 Stability Criteria 1047
2.4 Lyapunov Stability Concepts 1050
2.5 Lyapunov Stability of Linear Time-Invariant Systems 1052
2.6 Lyapunov Stability Results 1053
References 1054
3. Robust Multivariable Control 1056
3.1 Introduction 1056
3.2 Modeling 1056
3.3 Performance Analysis 1058
3.4 Stability Theorems 1061
3.5 Robust Stability 1061
3.6 Linear Quadratic Regulator and Gaussian Control Problems 1062
3.7 H8 Control 1063
3.8 Passivity-Based Control 1064
3.9 Conclusion 1066
References 1066
4. State Estimation 1068
4.1 Introduction 1068
4.2 State-Space Representations 1068
4.3 Recursive State Estimation 1069
4.4 State Estimator Design Approaches 1070
4.5 Performance Analysis 1072
4.6 Implementation Issues 1073
4.7 Example: Inertial Navigation System Error Estimation 1075
4.8 Further Reading 1077
References 1077
5. Cost-Cumulants and Risk-Sensitive Control 1080
5.1 Introduction 1080
5.2 Linear-Quadratic-Gaussian Control 1080
5.3 Cost-Cumulant Control 1081
5.4 Risk-Sensitive Control 1082
5.5 Relationship Between Risk-Sensitive and Cost-Cumulant Control 1083
5.6 Applications 1084
5.7 Conclusions 1086
References 1087
6. Frequency Domain System Identification 1088
6.1 Introduction 1088
6.2 Frequency Domain Curve-Fitting 1088
6.3 State-Space System Realization 1093
6.4 Application Studies 1094
6.5 Conclusion 1097
References 1097
7. Modeling Interconnected Systems: A Functional Perspective 1098
7.1 Introduction 1098
7.2 The Component Connection Model 1098
7.3 System Identification 1101
7.4 Simulation 1101
7.5 Fault Analysis 1101
7.6 Concluding Remarks 1102
References 1102
8. Fault-Tolerant Control 1104
8.1 Introduction 1104
8.2 Overview of Fault Diagnosis and Accommodation 1104
8.3 Problem Statement 1107
8.4 Online Fault Accommodation Control 1108
8.5 Architecture of Multiple Model-Based Fault Diagnosis and Accommodation 1113
8.6 Simulation Study and Discussions 1115
8.7 Conclusion 1122
References 1122
9. Gain-Scheduled Controllers 1126
9.1 Introduction 1126
9.2 Gain-Scheduling Design Through Linearization 1126
9.3 Gain Scheduling for Linear Parameter Varying Systems 1128
9.4 Conclusions 1132
References 1132
10. Sliding-Mode Control Methodologies for Regulating Idle Speed in Internal Combustion Engines 1134
10.1 Introduction 1134
10.2 SMC for Systems with Delay 1135
10.3 Discrete Adaptive Sliding-Mode Control 1138
10.4 Application: IC Engine Idle Speed Control 1139
10.5 Application of SMC for Point-Delayed Systems 1140
10.6 Application of Adaptive DSMC 1145
10.7 Summary 1146
Acknowledgments 1147
Appendix: IC Engine Nomenclature 1147
References 1147
11. Nonlinear Input/Output Control: Volterra Synthesis 1150
11.1 Introduction 1150
11.2 Problem Definition Using Total Synthesis 1150
11.3 Plant Representation 1151
11.4 Controller Design 1152
11.5 Simplified Partial Linearization Controller Design 1153
11.6 SDOF Base-Isolated Structure Example 1154
11.7 Conclusion 1157
References 1157
12. Intelligent Control of Nonlinear Systems with a Time-Varying Structure 1158
12.1 Introduction 1158
12.2 Direct Adaptive Control 1159
12.3 Application: Direct Adaptive Wing Rock Regulation with Varying Angle of Attack 1162
12.4 Conclusion 1167
References 1168
13. Direct Learning by Reinforcement 1170
13.1 Introduction 1170
13.2 A General Framework for Direct Learning Through Association and Reinforcement 1170
13.3 Analytical Characteristics of an Online NDP Learning Process 1173
13.4 Example 1 1175
13.5 Example 2 1177
13.6 Conclusion 1178
References 1178
14. Software Technologies for Complex Control Systems 1180
14.1 Introduction 1180
14.2 Objects and Components: Software Technologies 1181
14.3 Layered Architectures 1183
14.4 Networked Communications 1183
14.5 Middleware 1184
14.6 Real-Time Applications 1186
14.7 Software Tools for Control Applications 1187
Acknowledgments 1187
References 1187
Index 1190