The Science and Engineering of Microelectronic Fabrication

PART I: OVERVIEW AND MATERIALS; 1. An Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication; 1.1 Microelectronic Technologies -- A Simple Example; 1.2 Unit Processes and Technologies; 1.3 A Roadmap for the Course; 1.4 Summary; 2. Semiconductor Substrates; 2.1 Phase Diagrams and Solid Solubility; 2.2 Crystallography and Crystal Structure; 2.3 Crystal Defects; 2.4 Czochralski Growth; 2.5 Bridgman Growth of GaAs; 2.6 Float Zone Growth; 2.7 Water Preparation and Specifications; 2.8 Summary and Future Trends; Problems; References; PART II: UNIT PROCESSING I: HOT PROCESSING AND ION IMPLANTATION; 3. Diffusion; 3.1 Fick's Diffusion Equation in One Dimension; 3.2 Atomistic Models of Diffusion; 3.3 Analytic Solutions of Fick's Law; 3.4 Corrections to Simple Theory; 3.5 Diffusion Coefficients for Common Dopants; 3.6 Analysis of Diffused Profiles; 3.7 Diffusion in SiO2; 3.8 Diffusion Systems; 3.9 SUPREM Simulations of Diffusion Profiles; 3.10 Summary; Problems; References; 4. Thermal Oxidation; 4.1 The Deal-Grove Model of Oxidation; 4.2 The Linear and Parabolic Rate Coeffients; 4.3 The Initial Oxidation Regime; 4.4 The Structure of SiO2; 4.5 Oxide Characterization; 4.6 The Effects of Dopants During Oxidation and Polysilicon Oxidation; 4.7 Oxidation Induced Stacking Faults; 4.8 Alternative Gate Insulations; 4.9 Oxidation Sytems; 4.10 SUPREM Oxidations; 4.11 Summary; Problems; References; 5. Ion Implantation; 5.1 Idealized Ion Implantation Systems; 5.2 Coulomb Scattering; 5.3 Vertical Projected Range; 5.4 Channeling and Lateral Projected Range; 5.5 Implantation Damage; 5.6 Shallow Junction Formation; 5.7 Buried Dielectrics; 5.8 Ion Implantation Systems -- Problems and Concerns; 5.9 Implanted Profiles Using SUPREM+; 5.10 Summary; Problems; References; 6. Rapid Thermal Processing; 6.1 Gray Body Radiation, Heat Exchange, and Optical Absorption; 6.2 High Density Optical Sources and Chamber Design; 6.3 Temperature Measurement; 6.4 Temperature Measurement; 6.4 Thermoplastic Stress; 6.5 Rapid Thermal Activation of Impurities; 6.6 Rapid Thermal Processing of Dielectrics; 6.7 Silicidation and Contact Formation; 6.8 Alternative Rapid Thermal Processing Systems; 6.9 Summary; Problems; References; PART III: UNIT PROCESSES 2: PATTERN TRANSFER; 7. Optical Lithography; 7.1 Lithography Overview; 7.2 Diffraction; 7.3 The Modulation Transfer Function and Optical Exposures; 7.4 Source Systems and Spatial Coherence; 7.5 Contact/Proximity Printers; 7.6 Projection Printers; 7.7 Advanced Mask Concepts; 7.8 Surface Reflections and Standing Waves; 7.9 Alignment; 7.10 Summary; Problems; References; 8. Photoresists; 8.1 Photoresist Types; 8.2 Organic Materials and Polymers; 8.3 Typical Reactions of DQN Positive Photoresist; 8.4 Contrast Curves; 8.5 The Critical Modulation Transfer Function; 8.6 Applying and Developing Photoresist; 8.7 Second Order Exposure Effects; 8.8 Advanced Photoresists and Photoresist Processes; 8.9 Summary; Problems; References; 9. Nonoptical Lithographic Techniques; 9.1 Interactions of High Energy Beams with Matter; 9.2 Direct Write Electron Beam Lithography Systems; 9.3 Direct Write Electron Beam Lithography Summary and Outlook; 9.4 X-Ray Sources; 9.5 Proximity X-Ray Exposure Systems; 9.6 Membrane Masks; 9.7 Projection X-Ray Lithography; 9.8 Projection Electron Beam Lithography (SCALPEL); 9.9 E-bean and X-Ray Resists; 9.10 Radiation Damage in MOS Devices; 9.11 Summary; Problems; References; PART IV: UNIT PROCESSES 3: THIN FILMS; 10. Vacuum Science and Plasmas; 10.1 The Kinetic Theory of Gasses; 10.2 Gas Flow and Conductance; 10.3 Pressure Ranges and Vacuum Pumps; 10.4 Vacuum Seals and Pressure Measurement; 10.5 The DC Glow Discharge; 10.6 RF Discharges; 10.7 High Density Plasmas; 10.8 Summary; Problems; References; 11. Etching; 11.1 Wet Etching; 11.2 Chemical Mechanical Publishing; 11.3 Basic Regimes of Plasma Etching; 11.4 High Pressure Plasma Etching; 11.5 Ion Milling; 11.6 Reactive Ion Etching; 11.7 Damage in Reative Ion Etching; 11.8 High Density Plasma (HDP) Etching; 11.9 Liftoff; 11.10 Summary; Problems; References; 12. Physical Deposition: Evaporation and Sputtering; 12.1 Phase Diagrams: Sublimation and Evaporation; 12.2 Deposition Rates; 12.3 Step Coverage; 12.4 Evaporator Systems: Crucible Heating Techniques; 12.5 Multicomponent Films; 12.6 An Introduction to Sputtering; 12.7 Physics of Sputtering; 12.8 Deposition Rate: Sputter Yield; 12.9 High Density Plasma Sputtering; 12.10 Morphology and Step Coverage; 12.11 Sputtering Methods; 12.12 Sputtering of Specific Materials; 12.13 Stress in Deposited Layers; 12.14 Summary; Problems; References; 13. Chemcial Vapor Deposition; 13.1 A Simple CVD System for the Deposition of Silicon; 13.2 Chemical Equilibrium and the Law of Mass Action; 13.3 Gas Flow and Boundary Layers; 13.4 Evaluation of the Simple CVD System; 13.5 Atmospheric CVD of Dielectrics; 13.6 Low Pressure CVD of Dielectrics and Semiconductors in Hot Wall Systems; 13.7 Plasma Enhanced CVD of Dielectrics; 13.8 Metal CVD +; 13.9 Summary; Problems; References; 14. Exiptaxial Growth; 14.1 Water Cleaning and Native Oxide Removal; 14.2 The Thermodynamics of Vapor Phase Growth; 14.3 Surface Reactions; 14.4 Dopant Incorporation; 14.5 Defects in Epitaxial Growth; 14.6 Slective Growth; 14.7 Halide Transport GaAs Vapor Phase Epitaxy; 14.8 Incommensurate and Strained Layer Heterooepitaxy; 14.9 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD); 14.10 Advanced Silicon Vapor Phase Epitaxial Growth Techniques; 14.11 Molecular Beam Epitaxy Technology; 14.12 BCF Theory; 14.13 Gas Source MBE and Chemical Beam Epitaxy; 14.14 Summary; Problems; References; PART V: PROCESS INTEGRATION; 15. Device Isolation, Contacts, and Metallization; 15.1 Junction and Oxide Isolation; 15.2 LOCOAS Methods; 15.3 Trench Isolation; 15.4 Silicon on Insulator Isolation Techniques; 15.5 Semi-insulating Substrates; 15.6 Schottky Contacts; 15.7 Implanted Ohmic Contacts; 15.8 Alloyed Contacts; 15.9 Multilevel Metallization; 15.10 Planarization and Advanced Interconnect; 15.11 Summary; Problems; References; 16. CMOS Techniques; 16.1 Basic Long Channel Device Behavior; 16.2 Early MOS Technologies; 16.3 The Basic 3 um Technology; 16.4 Device Scaling; 16.5 Hot Carrier Effects and Drain Engineering; 16.6 Processing for Robust Oxides; 16.7 Latchup; 16.8 Shallow Source/Drains and Tailored Channel Doping; 16.9 Summary; Problems; References; 17. GaAs Technologies; 17.1 Basic MESFET Operation; 17.2 Basic MESFET Technology; 17.3 Digital Technologies; 17.4 MMC Technologies; 17.5 MODFETs; 17.6 Optoelectronic Devices; 17.7 Summary; Problems; References; 18. Silicon Bipolar Techniques; 18.1 Review of Bipolar Devices -- Ideal and Quasi-ideal Behavior; 18.2 Second Order Effects; 18.3 Performance of BJTs; 18.4 Early Bipolar Processes; 18.5 Advaned Bipolar Processes; 18.6 Hot Electron Effects in Bipolar Transitions; 18.7 BiCMOS; 18.8 Analog Bipolar Technolgies; 18.9 Summary; Problems; References; 19. MEMS (co-authored with G. Cibuzar, University of Minnesota); 19.1 Fundamentals of Mechanics; 19.2 Stress in Thin Films; 19.3 Mechanical to Electrical Transduction; 19.4 Mechanics of Common MEMS Devices; 19.5 Bulk Micromachining Etching Techniques; 19.6 Bulk Micromachining Process Flow; 19.7 Surface Micromachining Basics; 19.8 Surface Micromachining Process Flow; 19.9 MEMS Actuators; 19.10 High Aspect Ratio Microsystems Technology (HARMST); 19.11 Summary; Problems; References; 20. Integrated Circuit Manufacturing; 20.1 Yield Prediction and Yield Tracking; 20.2 Particle Control; 20.3 Statistical Process Control; 20.4 Full Factorial Experiments and ANOVA; 20.5 Design of Experiments; 20.6 Computer Integrated Manufacturing; 20.7 Summary; Problems; References; APPENDICES; I. Acronyms and Common Symbols; II. Properties of Selected Semiconductor Materials; III. Physical Constants; IV. Conversion Factors; V. The Complimentary Error Function; VI. F Values; VII. SUPREM Commands; Index